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sidney — Fri, 29 Jul 2011 14:24:52 +0000

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sidney — Wed, 01 Jun 2011 18:45:06 +0000

[Methodology] Archival research

sidney — Sun, 17 Apr 2011 03:38:28 +0000

Archival documents are mainly of administrative nature, such as birth record, paycheck, printing record, lawsuits, enrollment, etc. They are different from diaries and letters, which belong to historical documents, because the recorder of archival records did not necessarily participate in the activities. Archival documents can yield to information that musical manuscripts and printed source cannot provide. The accurate, detailed archival documents can be relevant to biography, history of a pace or an institution, chronology, and performing practice.

Archives have many forms; they can be any repositories with documents of administrative activity and transactions of affairs, and the documents are usually preserved in the original chronological order. Therefore the organization of archives is different from libraries and museums, which normally categorize collections by their criteria. In the late eighteenth century the idea of documents preserved by the States started to appear, and there appeared the French Archives Nationales in 1789 and Archives Départementales in 1796. Many other European countries also established their own public archives to preserve documents. In the United States, there are two levels of archives: federal and national. In short, archives are self-contextuaizing; they have their own idiomatic way of management and it is essential to understand how an archive works, how the documents are selected and organized, and how the records were produced for any researcher to have successful uses of archival documents.

Archives were first used for historians in the nineteenth century, when history writing became not only a kind of literature but also a science of finding accurate information. Before long, archives started to be appreciated as the sources for historical information. For musicology, archival documents can help the research on biography, performing practice, chronology of musical works, anonymous works, and the history of a musical society or festival. For example, from employment and pay records of a church, we might be able to figure out how many players were hired to play each part. From a publisher’s administrative records, we could also find out how many copies of a certain work were sold and how much the composer was paid, which could lead to our understanding of the composer’s popularity at that time.

Archival documents can also help the production of catalogues and complete editions as the foundation for future research. The first generation who took advantage of archival documents had been mostly amateurs, and the following generation included musicologists and organ specialists. François Lesure provided guidelines for various archives, especially those in France, and important skills for archival research. Jan LaRue was especially a significant scholar for archival research; he collected materials from libraries and archives through the Cold War and established a huge database for Classical composers, in particular Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. He also provided new sources for works of major composers, corrected formerly misattributed works, and found the composers for some anonymous works. His work in the 50s and 60s made significant contribution to the study of watermark and he also promoted the use of computer for musicological research and editing.

Various skills are required for successful archival research. Palaeography is the study of deciphering handwriting, and diplomatic is the study of the forms of documents. Knowing proper names (onomatics) and place names (toponymy) are also important skills. Moreover, the historical context requires researchers to have knowledge about economics and calendars. To use archival documents correctly and efficiently, the researcher’s capability of abstracting is crucial. Oftentimes researchers also have to consult experts in other fields to understand extramusical information. In other words, the researcher has to be equipped to evaluate and interpret archival documents to extract meaningful relationships among documents and construct history in an accurate way.

Impressionism

sidney — Mon, 11 Apr 2011 23:45:24 +0000

The term “impressionism” was borrowed from late 19^th-century French painting. The term was first used to mock Monet’s painting Impression, Sunrise (1873), because the painting did not present clear outlines. The term was later used to categorize paintings by Manet, Degas, Renoir, etc. This term was also used on works by Turner, Whistler, and also the literary style of Poe that features free verse and fluidity in symbolist poetry. The term was not applied to music until in the 1880s; in 1887 Debussy’s music was attacked for its “envoi”—such as the exaggerated sense of musical colour—and therefore the term became “one of the most dangerous enemies of truth in all.”

Impressionistic arts emphasize the immediate response upon hearing, feeling, seeing upon receiving a work of art. The work therefore evokes more of the subjective thoughts rather than objective portrayal. Despite the subjective emphasis, impressionist composers also believe that such works can also connect the subject with object by presenting the interaction between them. Impressionist composers commonly make use of ninths, distant overtones, multiple resonance, influences from the distant past or exotic places to create a musical space. Important representatives in music include Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony, which paints the sensual world with sound. Wagner’s nature music, such as the forest murmurs in Siegfried, also brings out the vagueness of impressionism.

More importantly, Debussy was not only a significant representative of impressionism but his extension of concepts about impressionism also impacts the future of music. In Debussy’s Printemps, the slow and arduous portrayal of the birth of things in nature is clearly impressionist. The unusual color, mosaic-like effect, unusual orchestral colors such as harp harmonics, muted cymbals, and wordless chorus all reflect impressionist ideas. Debussy’s Prélude de l’aprés-midi d’un faune makes use of sound-colors and portrays the mysterious interaction between nature and the imagination. However, it should not be mistaken that Debussy’s works were purely impressionist. His use of folk songs and the strong melodic character in works by Ravel, another important representative of impressionism, prove that their impressionist music was not entirely impressionist.

Neo-impressionism and post-impressionism in the twentieth century, influenced by Gauguin and Matisse, brought the idea into a more exaggerated level. Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring exemplifies post-impressionism for its juxtaposition of violent emotions, brutal rhythms, strong contrast of colors, and more advanced harmony. Post-impressionism also laid foundation for a Franco-Russian modernism. Post-impressionism remained popular even after Debussy’s death in 1918; composers who joined the style included Vaughan-Williams, Koechlin, Lili Boulanger, and Messiaen. Despite the negative connotation of the term “impressionism,” the nature of crossing cultures, times, and places continues to attract composers.

[Methodology] Historiography

sidney — Sat, 09 Apr 2011 20:49:52 +0000

Historiography is the writing of history; historiography of music, the writing of music history, involves many layers of complicated issues. History writing has existed throughout the time, as seen in the writing of mythology, government, poetry, science, etc. Music history writing first began around late eighteenth century. First issue of historiography arises when different history writers apply different perspectives of writing history. Older history writing shows lists of works, and the selections reveals whom was considered great composers. Progress can be another approach in history writing; searching for a constant progress in the thread of history leads the writer’s selection of historical materials. Dahlhaus emphasized the autonomy of works, while Kermann insists the importance of the cultural and social context. For this issue, Leo Treitler took a middle stand and warns the danger of being extreme. Each perspectives offer different advantages but also create shortcomings. The limitation of writing history is that the abundant historical events are simply too much; therefore, the author has to be selective and one’s selection of materials creates interpretations. Indeed, the narratives of history cannon encompass everything in history, and the final product only reveals the author’s version of story.

The current historiography of music demonstrates two more issues: periodization and canon. In the eighteenth century people started being interested in periodization, which can apply general history, the immanent musical works, and the cultural-historical approach. Ambros, Kiesewetter, and Forkel all made their attempts for ways of periodization. Despite the problematic concept that the continuous history can be sectionalized into periods and musical styles can be distinguished from period to period, the idea of periodization is still largely applied in music history books nowadays. Although periodization is against the actual development of styles, thoughts, and ideas in history, it is a convenient way of organizing history and the choices of dates do have reasons. Before a better way of organizing history can be found, periodization, in my opinion, can be in use with caution—as long as we continue to be aware of the limitation and problems of periodization.

The last issue of historiography is the canon of the Western music history. The canonical composers and works have been under the spotlight of music history and musicological research, and the formation of such a canon is not without problem. The canon reflects a power structure in the writing of music history (or any history); whoever gets to write history owns power. Therefore most of the canonic composers were European, Caucasian composers; few women composers or male composers from other races and countries finally made it into the history in recent decades. Their works are still not considered the core of the canon. The political factor and power, although not always visible, are strongly underlying and influencing historiography. In short, historiography of music should be viewed with caution with the writer’s perspective, the issues of periodization and canon, and the power underlying history writing.

Cyclic Masses

sidney — Sat, 02 Apr 2011 20:33:54 +0000

In the early fifteenth century, composers’ interest in Ordinary movements (except for Ite) continued to grow and such interest therefore contributed to the desire to unite the movements by musical means. At the time the use of cantus firmus in Mass movements could be strict, and the movements could also freely paraphrase Ordinary chants in the uppermost voice or the tenor. The Ordinary movements with unifying musical elements thus formed cyclic Masses. The first cyclic Masses were written by English composers with three voices, and the cantus firmus was usually in the tenor with long note-values and/or isorhythmic treatment.

The first important composer of cyclic Masses on the continent is Dufay. His Missa se la face ay pale from ca. 1450 was based on his own secular chanson of the same name and included one more voice, bass, under the tenor. His Missa se la face ay pale and Missa l’homme armé used strict cantus firmus procedure. On the other hand, the second Agnus from his Missa Ave regina quoted more than one voice from his own polyphonic motet of the same name. Dufay made cyclic Masses an important genre and outlet for composers’ serious thoughts; moreover, his cyclic Masses also contributed to the popular use of French chansons as the tenor for Masses.

Josquin composed more than 20 cyclic Masses; he not only used all the techniques of composing works of this genre but also introduced new techniques. He applied both strict and free cantus firmus procedures, and secular tenors can also be seen in his Masses. Moreover, his Missa la sol fa re mi used solmization syllables as the basis of the Mass. Such an idea was also applied in his Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, which used the vowels of the duke’s name as the cantus firmus (the technique is called Soggetto cavato). In his Missa Pange lingua, he freely paraphrased the cantus firmus imitatively from voice to voice.

After the 1500s, imitative-homophonic Masses became popular and therefore gave rise to a new kind of cyclic Mass, parody Mass. Out of Palestrina’s 104 Masses—which later became the hallmark of classical polyphony—more than 50 was parody Mass, among which many were modeled on his own motets. (Palestrina tended to choose sacred models, as opposed to Lassus’s use of chansons or madrigals for Masses.) Palestrina also applied various techniques, including strict cantus firmus procedure, imitative paraphrase technique, solmization syllables, canonic settings, and freely composed Masses. The most well-known Mass by Palestrina is probably Missa Papae Marcelli, which largely contributed to his posthumous reputation. A legend gave this Mass the credit for saving polyphony from the Council of Trent, because it was not based on a profane or secular source and the text-setting in Gloria and Credo made the words intelligible.

Romantic concerto

sidney — Sun, 27 Mar 2011 00:30:44 +0000

Beethoven continued the achievement Mozart created in Classical concertos and expanded in terms of form and complexity; the development of piano from five octaves to six octaves allowed Beethoven to exploit the potential of the instrument more thoroughly than Mozart. Beethoven’s first three piano concertos were more closely modeled on Mozart’s; his piano Fourth and Fifth Concertos start with solo statements rather than orchestral ritornellos. Moreover, the slow movements in these two piano concertos and his Violin Concerto are connected to the finales without a pause. Beethoven’s Fifth Piano Concerto expresses his heroic style and makes use of several pregnant motifs elaboratively.

After Beethoven, symphony became the most popular genre, on which most composers focused and therefore the number of concertos by each composer was rather few; a conservative tradition can be seen started with Mendelssohn, including Schumann, Brahms, Bruch, Dvořák, Saint-Säens, Rubinstein, Tchaikovsky, and Rachmaninoff. The concertos by these composers in general follow a newer format, started by Mendelssohn, in which the first ritornello and the first solo sections are integrated into one unrepeated exposition; it is followed by development, recapitulation, and coda as in usual Romantic sonata form. The finale could follow the new design, sonata form, as well as rondo or sonata-rondo.

Some composers also ventured away from the newer convention started by Mendelssohn. Brahms and Dvořák (in his cello concerto) returned to the ritornello-sonata form used by Beethoven. Mendelssohn’s three movements in his Violin Concerto are connected without pause. Brahms’s piano concertos revealed symphonic influence; the first piano concerto had been considered as materials for a symphony, and the second concerto has four movements, including a Beethoven-like scherzo movement.

On the other hand, many virtuoso-composers created virtuosic concertos, including Spohr, Paganini, Vieuxtemps, Ignaz Moscheles, Chopin, and Liszt. In their works, the solo parts might be give more attention than the orchestral part; the orchestral part was not the center of attention in Chopin’s piano concertos, and the competition between the soloist and the orchestra was no longer significant in Paganini’s violin concertos. The relationships between composers and virtuosos were also important for the composers’ motivation to write concertos; Robert Schumann wrote for his wife Clara, whereas Mendelssohn and Brahms both wrote for Ferdinand David and Joseph Joachim. The development of the genre was also resulted from the development of instruments in the nineteenth century. In short, Romantic concertos moved away from ritornello-sonata form to sonata form and showed significant influence by the virtuosos and symphonic tradition.

Classical concerto

sidney — Thu, 24 Mar 2011 02:57:36 +0000

In the eighteenth century, solo concerto became the most popular type of concertos. The idea of a concerto grosso was only retained in sinfonia concertante, with two or more soloists. The rise of solo concertos can be contributed to the popularity of virtuoso and the increasing demand for new works for amateurs. Classical concertos were therefore written for both connoisseurs and amateurs. Although solo concertos were written for all instruments available, those for keyboard and for violin dominated; violin concertos were the most common, and keyboard concertos outnumbered violin concertos later in the eighteenth century. As for keyboard concertos, harpsichord was the popular designation before the 1770s; piano dominated keyboard concerto after the 1770s. J. C. Bach was a significant composer for harpsichord concertos, whereas Mozart’s contribution to piano concertos cannot be overemphasized.

The first movement of a Classical concerto is in ritornello form with three or four (more common) ritornellos, which are usually longer than those in Baroque concertos. The sonata form, used in Classical symphonies, was then integrated into the ritornello form; the ritornello-sonata form has been considered as the most important characteristic for Classical concertos. The diagram below shows the ritornello-sonata form:

Part 1 Part 2

Section 1 section 2 section 3 section 4

Rit 1 Solo 1 Rit 2 Solo 2 Rit 3 Solo 3 Rit 4

1P 2P K 1P 2P (as 1S) 2S K « fantasy » 1P 2P 2S K

I— I I V— V modulatory I I

The themes are presented by the orchestra and then the soloist; the double exposition is commonly seen in J. C. Bach and Mozart’s keyboard concertos. Section 3, the most free and modulatory section, is therefore the only section without the ritornello and the virtuosic soloist can show off his or her talent. The return of the main theme and the tonic key in section 4, played firstly by the orchestra and then joined by the soloist, is considered as a crucial moment that corresponds to the recapitulation in sonata form. Mozart sometimes put the cadenza in ritornello 4, although the candenza was placed in Solo 3.

Mozart’s role in Classical concertos cannot be overstressed; his 23 piano concertos (of which 17 were composed during his Vienna years) and 5 violin concertos have been considered as the highest achievement of the 18^th-century concertos. The piano concertos of the Vienna period (beginning in the 1780s) were written for Mozart himself to perform in public concerts. For the purpose of self-promotion, these concertos are much more sophisticated and demanding so they could show off the composer’s musicality and talent; they also make use of the full potential of the orchestra. They display colorful timbre contrast and dialogue between the solo and tutti sections. Beethoven’s first two piano concertos were modeled on Mozart’s, but their dramatic power has started to extend to the style of Romantic concertos.

[Methodology] Musical analysis

sidney — Wed, 16 Mar 2011 17:26:15 +0000

Ian Bent explains that the starting point for analysis is music itself rather than anything external. Therefore, analysis can provide a hands-on and close-up study of the music as itself; the understanding of music is definitely a significant layer of musicological studies. The significance of analysis was once a heated issue when Joseph Kerman in the 1980s attacked musical analysis, stating that analysis was mere ideology and putting criticism above analysis. His criticism not only reflected the misconception that analysis was formalistic and also the rise of the so-called new musicology. Such controversy is beyond the scope of the current essay, and I will focus on the divisions, benefit, and issues in musical analysis.

Analysis can be divided into formal analysis and stylistic analysis, depending on the focuses. Formal analysis is believed to empirical, whereas stylistic is transcendental and requires posteriori knowledge. The starting point of formal analysis is to understand the structure. Besides the framework, it is also important for formal analysis to investigate how different segments work with each other in one music work. Stylistic analysis is to connect stylistic characteristics with the composer’s other works, other composers, and the historical background. Throughout the history of music theory, idiomatic kinds of analyses also provide tools for different kinds of compositions, such as Schenker’s Ursatz, Urlinie, Riemann’s transformational theory, neo-Riemann theory led by David Lewin and Richard Cohn, post-tonal theories such as set theory and twelve-tone row. They are all geared towards different compositions and intended to explain musical works based on different aesthetics.

To Adorno, analysis is to bring out the truth content mediated by the technical structure; for Agawu, analysis enhances perception. Therefore it is clear why analysis is important. Adorno’s view of finding the truth content is a rather philosophical concept, which does not directly explain how to find the truth content but declares the significance of careful and correct analysis. Agawu, on the other hand, explains that analysis can enhance understanding of the musical work and therefore aid the performance. Moreover, analysis can be seen as re-composition and thus also helps composition. Musical analysis can also supply aestheticians with data to establish aesthetic discourses. Closely related to music theory and musicology, musical analysis is essential for both disciplines.

Musical analysis, despite its starting point in music itself, can be expanded beyond the music, contrary to the misconception that analysis is mere formalistic. Narratology by Richard Littlefield and David Neumeyer, semiotics led by David Lidov, Robert Snarrenberg and Patrick McCreless’s use of literary-critical terms for analysis all exemplify analysts’ efforts to connect with extra-musical theories and the contexts for the musical works. One last question concerned musical analysis is the object of analysis; in other words, what is music? Conventionally, the music score is conceived as the definite form of music; however, music like jazz or music from the Medieval or Baroque periods when the composers did not so meticulously notate everything into the score and the performers improvised during performances, the object for analysis should take the recordings or the actual performances into account. In short, despite the various issues with which music analysis involves, musical analysis can ground musicological research in the actual music, ascertaining the closeness of research and the object of research.

Baroque concerto

sidney — Sat, 12 Mar 2011 18:11:17 +0000

The definition of concerto in Latin is “to dispute” or “to work together,” whereas the Italian meaning is “to get together” or “to agree.” The definitions seem to contradict with each other, but they actually embody the important characteristics of the genre: different instrumental or vocal forces play together in the tutti sections and compete with each other in the solo sections. The balance between contrast and unity is therefore important in concertos. Before the 1700s, the term concerto can refer to a variety of works. The earliest known concerti were published in Concerti di Andrea, et di Gia (1587), which included church music and madrigals. Viadana’s Cento concerti (1602), published in Venice, was another important early collection. The early concertos, despite the lack of a clear definition, were usually composed for mixed ensembles—of vocal groups or vocal and instrumental ensemble.

Instrumental concertos became popular in the last two decades of the seventeenth century. Italy was the center for concertos in the Baroque period. They usually contain three movements and follow the format of fast-slow-fast from the sinfonia from Italian opera. Concertos at this time could be seen as amplified trio sonatas with the contrast between tutti and solo. Corelli’s twelve concertos in his Op. 6 (1714) were representative of the genre. Back in 1682, Georg Muffat’s Armonico tribute introduced the Roman concerto into Germany. His instructions on how to play concertos in another publication addressed the flexibility and practicality of concertos; they could be played with any number of musicians as long as the principle of contrast was preserved. For the concertos at this time, the soloists were called concertino and the orchestra called ripieno. There were mainly three types of concertos: solo concerto with one soloist, concerto grosso with a small group of soloists, and ripieno concerto with no soloist.

The contrast between tutti and solo was then naturally used for a logical form. Giuseppe Torelli was the pioneer to construct the format for ritornello concerto. The movement starts and ends with two ritornello sections in the home key, and the ritornello in the middle of the movement is in a contrasting key. The solo sections in between the three ritornellos are more modulatory and virtuosic, while the ritornellos are more stable and confirm the keys. The ritornello form can be drawn into a diagram:

Ritornello ritornello ritornello

Ripieno solo ripieno solo ripieno

Home key contrast key home key

Applying the ritornello form, Vivaldi, who wrote over 600 concertos, took the genre into yet another level. His use of motives connected the ritornello and solo sections and provided not only variety but also unity to concertos. Bach’s concertos again expanded the genre; his Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 does not have distinctive tutti sections. His Concerto for four harpsichords was the first concerto for one or more harpsichords, establishing the foundation for keyboard concertos in the eighteenth century.

The appeal of concertos in the Baroque period was evident, as musicologist Douglass Seaton points out. The principle of contrast was essential to the period. The solo sections provide opportunities for rhetoric expressions and fulfill the love of ornamentation. Moreover, the balance between variety and unity satisfied the desire for a logical design. As opera was the perfect vocal genre for the Baroque period, concerto was the ideal instrumental genre.